Bismuth has been known since ancient times, so no one person is credited with its discovery. The element was confused in early times with tin and lead because of its resemblance to those elements. In 1753, French chemist Claude François Geoffroy demonstrated that this metal is distinct from lead and tin.

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Polonium was discovered by Marie and Pierre Curie in 1898 in Paris. This element was the first one discovered by the Curies while they were investigating the cause of pitchblende radioactivity. The dangers of working with radioactive elements were not known when the Curies made their discoveries.

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In 1869, existence of astatine was first predicted by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev and called the element eka-iodine. In 1940, Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio Segrè isolated the element at the University of California, Berkeley. Instead of searching for the element in nature, the scientists created it by bombarding bismuth-209 with alpha particles.

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Radon was discovered in 1900 by Friedrich Ernst Dorn in Halle, Germany. He reported some experiments in which he noticed that radium compounds emanate a radioactive gas. In 1910, Sir William Ramsay and Robert Whytlaw-Gray isolated radon, determined its density, and determined that it was the heaviest known gas.

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Francium was discovered in 1939 by Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris, France. It was discovered when she was researching the radioactive decay of actinium-227. Marguerite Perey discovered that francium-223 is made naturally when actinium-227 emits an alpha-particle.

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Radium was discovered by Marie Curie and Pierre Curie in 1898. They extracted the radium compound from a uraninite sample. Radium was isolated in its metallic state by Marie Curie and André-Louis Debierne in 1910 through the electrolysis of radium chloride by using a mercury cathode and distilling in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas.

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André-Louis Debierne, a French chemist, discovered actinium in 1899. He separated it from pitchblende residues left by Marie and Pierre Curie after they had extracted radium. Friedrich Oskar Giesel independently discovered actinium in 1902 as a substance being similar to lanthanum.

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Thorium was discovered by Jöns Jacob Berzelius in 1828, in Stockholm, Sweden. Thorium was first observed to be radioactive in 1898, independently, by Polish-French physicist Marie Curie and German chemist Gerhard Carl Schmidt. The crystal bar process was discovered by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925 to produce high-purity metallic thorium.

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In 1900, William Crookes isolated protactinium as an intensely radioactive material from uranium Protactinium was first identified in 1913 by Kasimir Fajans and Oswald Helmuth Göhring in Germany. A more stable isotope of protactinium was discovered in 1917 by Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin.

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Uranium was discovered in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth. In 1841, Eugène-Melchior Péligot isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with potassium. Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity by using uranium in 1896.

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Neptunium was the first synthetic transuranium element of the actinide series to be discovered. Neptunium was first produced by Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson in 1940 at Berkeley Radiation Laboratory of the University of California. The team produced the neptunium isotope ²³⁹Np by bombarding uranium with slow moving neutrons.

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Plutonium was first produced in 1940 by Glenn T. Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, Joseph W. Kennedy and Arthur Wahl. Plutonium-238 was produced by deuteron bombardment of uranium-238 in the 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California, Berkeley. The Berkeley team made neptunium-238 which decayed to plutonium-238.

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Americium-241 was first identified in 1944 by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James, Leon O. Morgan and Albert Ghiorso at the metallurgical laboratory at the University of Chicago. It was produced by irradiating plutonium with neutrons during the Manhattan Project. Americium was first isolated as a pure compound by Burris Cunningham in 1945, at the University of Chicago.

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Curium was discovered by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James and Albert Ghiorso in 1944 at the University of California, Berkeley. It was produced by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles during the Manhattan Project. Curium metal was produced only in 1951 by reduction of curium fluoride with barium.

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Berkelium was discovered by Glenn T. Seaborg, Albert Ghiorso and Stanley G. Thompson in 1949 at the University of California, Berkeley. It was produced by the bombardment of americium with alpha particles. Berkelium was isolated in greater quantities for the first time by Burris Cunningham and Stanley Thompson in 1958.

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Californium was discovered by Stanley G. Thompson, Kenneth Street, Jr., Albert Ghiorso and Glenn T. Seaborg in 1950 at the University of California, Berkeley. It was produced by the bombardment of curium with alpha particles. Californium was isolated in macro quantities for the first time by Burris Cunningham and Stanley Thompson in 1958.

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Einsteinium was discovered as a component of the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952. It was identified by Albert Ghiorso and co-workers at the University of California, Berkeley in collaboration with the Argonne and Los Alamos National Laboratories, in the fallout from the Ivy Mike nuclear test. The new element was produced by the nuclear explosion in miniscule amounts by the addition of 15 neutrons to uranium-238.

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Fermium was discovered as a component of the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952. It was identified by Albert Ghiorso and co-workers at the University of California, Berkeley in collaboration with the Argonne and Los Alamos National Laboratories, in the fallout from the Ivy Mike nuclear test. The new element was produced by the nuclear fission of 17 neutrons with uranium-238.

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Mendelevium was discovered by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn T. Seaborg, Gregory R. Choppin, Bernard G. Harvey and Stanley G. Thompson in 1955 at the University of California, Berkeley. It was produced by the bombardment of einsteinium with helium. Mendelevium was identified by chemical analysis in an ion exchange experiment.

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Nobelium was discovered by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn T. Seaborg, John R. Walton and Torbjørn Sikkeland in 1958 at the University of California, Berkeley. It was produced by the bombardment of curium with carbon atoms. It was correctly identified in 1966 by scientists at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Soviet Union.

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Lawrencium was discovered by Albert Ghiorso, Torbjørn Sikkeland, Almon Larsh and Robert M. Latimer in 1961 at the University of California, Berkeley. It was produced by the bombardment of californium with boron atoms. Lawrencium was the last member of the actinide series to be discovered.

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Rutherfordium was reportedly first detected in 1964 at the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research at Dubna. The element was synthesized by Albert Ghiorso, Matti Nurmia, James Andrew Harris, Kari Eskola and Pirkko Eskola in 1968 at the University of California, Berkeley. It was produced by the bombardment of californium with carbon atoms.

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Dubnium was reportedly first discovered in 1968 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna. Researchers there bombarded an americium-243 target with neon-22 ions. In the same year, a team led by Albert Ghiorso working at the University of California, Berkeley conclusively synthesized the element by bombarding a californium-249 target with nitrogen-15 ions.

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Scientists working at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, USSR reported their discovery of element 106 in June 1974. Synthesis was also reported in September 1974 at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory by the workers of the Lawrence Berkeley and Livermore Laboratories led by Albert Ghiorso and E. Kenneth Hulet. It was produced by collisions of californium-249 with oxygen atoms.

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Bohrium was first convincingly synthesized in 1981 by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt. The team bombarded a target of bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of chromium-54 to produce 5 atoms of the isotope bohrium-262.

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Hassium was first synthesized in 1984 by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt. The team bombarded a target of lead-208 with accelerated nuclei of iron-58 to produce 3 atoms of the isotope hassium-265.

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Meitnerium was first synthesized in 1982 by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt. The team bombarded a target of bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of iron-58 and detected a single atom of the isotope meitnerium-266.

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Darmstadtium was first created in 1994, at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt, Germany, by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg, under the direction of Sigurd Hofmann. The team bombarded a lead-208 target with accelerated nuclei of nickel-62 and detected a single atom of the isotope darmstadtium-269.

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Roentgenium was first synthesized by an international team led by Sigurd Hofmann at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt, Germany in 1994. The team bombarded a target of bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of nickel-64 and detected a single atom of the isotope roentgenium-272.

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Copernicium was first created on February 9, 1996, at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt, Germany, by Sigurd Hofmann, Victor Ninov et al. This element was created by firing accelerated zinc-70 nuclei at a target made of lead-208 nuclei in a heavy ion accelerator. A single atom of copernicium was produced with a mass number of 277.

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Nihonium was identified in 2003 as an alpha decay product of element 115, moscovium by a team composed of Russian scientists at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The Dubna-Livermore collaboration has strengthened their claim for the discovery of nihonium by conducting chemical experiments on the final decay product ²⁶⁸Db.

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Ununquadium (Uuq) was the temporary IUPAC systematic element name. In 1998, a team led by Yuri Oganessian and Vladimir Utyonkov at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna produced flerovium by bombarding plutonium with calcium. In an experiment lasting 40 days, 5 x 10¹⁸ atoms of calcium to be fired at plutonium to produce a single atom of flerovium.

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Moscovium was identified in 2004 by a team composed of Russian scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The team reported that they bombarded americium-243 with calcium-48 ions to produce four atoms of moscovium. These atoms decayed by emission of alpha-particles to nihonium in approximately 100 milliseconds.

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Ununhexium (Uuh) was the temporary IUPAC systematic element name. Livermorium was identified in 2000 by a team composed of Russian scientists at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory led by Yuri Oganessian and Ken Moody.

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Tennessine was identified in 2010 by a team composed of Russian scientists at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. It was produced by the bombardment of berkelium with calcium. Ununseptium was the temporary IUPAC systematic element name.

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Oganesson was identified in 2002 by a team composed of Russian scientists at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. It was produced by the bombardment of californium with calcium. Ununoctium was the temporary IUPAC systematic element name.

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Liquid hydrogen is used as a rocket fuel. Hydrogen is commonly used in power stations as a coolant in generators. Hydrogen's two heavier isotopes (deuterium and tritium) are used in nuclear fusion. Used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding.

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Helium is used as a protective gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in titanium and zirconium production, and in gas chromatography. Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics. Helium is used for filling balloons and for pressurizing liquid fuel rockets. Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding processes.

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Pure lithium metal is used in rechargeable lithium ion batteries. Lithium stearate is used as an all-purpose and high-temperature lubricant. Lithium is used in special glasses and ceramics. Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides are used as high energy additives to rocket propellants.

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Beryllium is used in nuclear reactors as a reflector or moderator. Beryllium metal is used for lightweight structural components in the defense and aerospace industries in high-speed aircraft, guided missiles, space vehicles and satellites. Unlike most metals, beryllium is virtually transparent to x-rays and hence it is used in radiation windows for x-ray tubes.

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Boron oxide is used in glassmaking and ceramics. Borax is used in making fiberglass, as a cleansing fluid, a water softener, insecticide, herbicide and disinfectant. Boric acid is used as a mild antiseptic and as a flame retardant. Boron shielding is used as a control for nuclear reactors.

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The major use of carbon other than food and wood is in the form of hydrocarbons, most notably the fossil fuel methane gas and crude oil. Graphite is used for pencil tips, high temperature crucibles, dry cells, electrodes and as a lubricant. Diamonds are used in jewelry and in industry for cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing. Carbon black is used as the black pigment in printing ink.

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Nitrogen is used to produce ammonia and fertilizers, vital for current food production methods. Liquid nitrogen is used as a refrigerant. Nitric acid is used as an oxidizing agent in liquid fueled rockets. Nitrogen is a constituent of molecules in every major drug class in pharmacology and medicine.

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Pure oxygen is frequently used to help breathing in patients with respiratory ailments. Oxygen is used in oxyacetylene welding, as an oxidant for rocket fuel, and in methanol and ethylene oxide production. It is also used in the production of steel, plastics and textiles. Plants and animals rely on oxygen for respiration.

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Compounds of fluorine, including sodium fluoride, are used in toothpaste and in drinking water to prevent dental cavities. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) now serve as replacements for CFC refrigerants. Fluorine and its compounds are used in processing nuclear fuel.

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Neon is often used in brightly lit advertising signs. It is also used in vacuum tubes, high-voltage indicators, lightning arrestors, wave meter tubes, television tubes, and helium-neon lasers. Liquid neon is used as a cryogenic refrigerant.

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Metallic sodium is vital in the manufacture of esters and in the preparation of organic compounds. Sodium vapor lamps are often used for street lighting in cities. Liquid sodium is used as a heat transfer fluid in some fast reactors. Sodium is also used as an alloying metal, an anti-scaling agent, and as a reducing agent for metals when other materials are ineffective.

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Magnesium is widely used in the manufacturing of mobile phones, laptop computers, cameras, and other electronic components. The brilliant light it produces when ignited is made use of in photography, flares, pyrotechnics and incendiary bombs. Magnesium compounds such as the hydroxide (milk of magnesia), sulfate (Epsom salts), chloride and citrate are used for medicinal purposes.

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Aluminium is used in an extensive range of products from drinks cans to window frames and boats to aircraft. It is used in electrical transmission lines. It is also used for kitchen utensils, outside building decoration, and in thousands of industrial applications. When alloyed with small amounts of copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, or other elements impart a variety of useful properties.

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In the form of sand and clay it is used to make concrete and brick; it is a useful refractory material for high-temperature work, and in the form of silicates it is used in making enamels, pottery, etc. Silica, as sand, is a principal ingredient of glass. Silicon chips are the basis of modern electronic and computing. Silicon carbide, more commonly called carborundum is used in abrasives.

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